Phase-out clubs: an effective tool for global climate governance?
Based on:
Journal Article (2025)
Investigates the characteristics and effectiveness of phase-out clubs as tools for global climate governance, specifically their role in phasing out fossil fuels.
Brief by:
The urgency to phase out fossil fuel production and consumption is underscored by the need to keep global temperatures well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, as highlighted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2022). Despite the Paris Agreement’s efforts, global warming mitigation remains insufficient, prompting exploration of alternative governance mechanisms such as climate clubs. These clubs, including the Powering Past Coal Alliance (PPCA) and the Beyond Oil and Gas Alliance (BOGA), aim to accelerate fossil fuel phase-out through commitments to terminate specific technologies or processes. Emerging in a fragmented global climate governance landscape, climate clubs offer a potential complement to traditional treaties by fostering cooperative fragmentation, where loosely integrated institutions work towards shared goals. The study addresses the lack of empirical knowledge and confusion surrounding the nature of climate clubs, focusing on phase-out clubs as a sub-group of normative clubs committed to phasing out fossil fuels.
The research identifies a gap in comparative analyses of climate clubs, which hinders understanding of their effectiveness and contribution to global climate governance. Existing studies often focus on single cases, lacking a broader perspective on patterns across clubs. This study seeks to fill this gap by defining normative clubs, constructing a database of phase-out clubs, and analyzing their characteristics and functions. Key questions include membership size and composition, obligations adopted, compliance, member benefits, and functions within the regime complex. The study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of phase-out clubs’ role in supporting the Paris Agreement and accelerating global momentum to phase out fossil fuels.
Key findings
Phase-out clubs are gaining traction in global climate governance, particularly among Western European and English-speaking countries.
Evidence
The Global Methane Pledge (GMP) saw a twentyfold increase in membership within two years, while other clubs like the PPCA and BOGA roughly doubled in size. Western European countries and Canada are prominent members, with Canada joining five phase-out clubs and the US four. In contrast, major greenhouse gas emitters like China and India show low participation, with China not joining any phase-out clubs and India joining only one.
What it means
The growing interest in phase-out clubs among certain regions highlights a division in global participation, with Western countries leading the charge while major emitters remain less engaged.
The depth of obligations varies significantly among phase-out clubs, affecting their potential impact on emissions reduction.
Evidence
Clubs like BOGA, CCAC, and GMP have adopted deep obligations, while PPCA members have medium-depth commitments. The Zero Routine Flaring (ZRF) and the No New Coal Commitment (NNCC) have shallow obligations. A full phase-out commitment does not necessarily indicate a deeper obligation; rather, the target category and intervention scope are crucial factors.
What it means
The variation in obligation depth suggests that a broader intervention scope, even with a phase-down approach, can represent a deeper commitment than a narrow full phase-out, influencing the clubs' effectiveness in reducing emissions.
Compliance with phase-out club commitments varies, with some clubs showing significant progress while others face challenges.
Evidence
NNCC members have not commissioned any new coal power plants, and PPCA members collectively reduced coal capacity by about 30% between 2017 and 2023. However, ZRF members show mixed results, with some countries reducing flaring significantly while others increased it. Compliance data for GMP, CCAC, and BOGA is not yet available due to recent data limitations.
What it means
The varying levels of compliance highlight the challenges in achieving collective progress and the importance of monitoring and data availability for assessing club effectiveness.
Phase-out clubs provide both exclusive and non-exclusive benefits to members, enhancing their appeal and effectiveness.
Evidence
The CCAC and GMP offer exclusive access to expert consultations and funding, while BOGA provides funding to both members and non-members willing to align with its objectives. The PPCA and NNCC offer reputational benefits as first movers in the transition away from coal.
What it means
The combination of exclusive and non-exclusive benefits strengthens the clubs' ability to attract and retain members, supporting their role in global climate governance.
Phase-out clubs complement the Paris Agreement by raising awareness and building momentum for phase-out measures within the UNFCCC.
Evidence
The CCAC was the first to address short-lived climate pollutants, and the GMP's rapid membership growth created momentum for methane reductions ahead of COP28. The PPCA's work on phasing out unabated coal preceded the inclusion of coal phase-down language in the 2021 Glasgow Climate Pact.
What it means
By addressing issues not yet covered in UNFCCC negotiations, phase-out clubs play a crucial role in advancing climate mitigation measures and supporting the implementation of the Paris Agreement.
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Phase-out clubs: an effective tool for global climate governance?
Cite this brief: Koppenborg, Florentine. 'Phase-out clubs: an effective tool for global climate governance?'. Acume. https://www.acume.org/r/phase-out-clubs-an-effective-tool-for-global-climate-governance/
Brief created by: Dr Florentine Koppenborg | Year brief made: 2025
Original research:
- Koppenborg, F., ‘Phase-out clubs: an effective tool for global climate governance?’ Environmental Politics https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2025.2483070. – https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09644016.2025.2483070
Research brief:
Investigates the characteristics and effectiveness of phase-out clubs as tools for global climate governance, specifically their role in phasing out fossil fuels.
The urgency to phase out fossil fuel production and consumption is underscored by the need to keep global temperatures well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, as highlighted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2022). Despite the Paris Agreement’s efforts, global warming mitigation remains insufficient, prompting exploration of alternative governance mechanisms such as climate clubs. These clubs, including the Powering Past Coal Alliance (PPCA) and the Beyond Oil and Gas Alliance (BOGA), aim to accelerate fossil fuel phase-out through commitments to terminate specific technologies or processes. Emerging in a fragmented global climate governance landscape, climate clubs offer a potential complement to traditional treaties by fostering cooperative fragmentation, where loosely integrated institutions work towards shared goals. The study addresses the lack of empirical knowledge and confusion surrounding the nature of climate clubs, focusing on phase-out clubs as a sub-group of normative clubs committed to phasing out fossil fuels.
The research identifies a gap in comparative analyses of climate clubs, which hinders understanding of their effectiveness and contribution to global climate governance. Existing studies often focus on single cases, lacking a broader perspective on patterns across clubs. This study seeks to fill this gap by defining normative clubs, constructing a database of phase-out clubs, and analyzing their characteristics and functions. Key questions include membership size and composition, obligations adopted, compliance, member benefits, and functions within the regime complex. The study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of phase-out clubs’ role in supporting the Paris Agreement and accelerating global momentum to phase out fossil fuels.
Findings:
Phase-out clubs are gaining traction in global climate governance, particularly among Western European and English-speaking countries.
The Global Methane Pledge (GMP) saw a twentyfold increase in membership within two years, while other clubs like the PPCA and BOGA roughly doubled in size. Western European countries and Canada are prominent members, with Canada joining five phase-out clubs and the US four. In contrast, major greenhouse gas emitters like China and India show low participation, with China not joining any phase-out clubs and India joining only one.
The growing interest in phase-out clubs among certain regions highlights a division in global participation, with Western countries leading the charge while major emitters remain less engaged.
The depth of obligations varies significantly among phase-out clubs, affecting their potential impact on emissions reduction.
Clubs like BOGA, CCAC, and GMP have adopted deep obligations, while PPCA members have medium-depth commitments. The Zero Routine Flaring (ZRF) and the No New Coal Commitment (NNCC) have shallow obligations. A full phase-out commitment does not necessarily indicate a deeper obligation; rather, the target category and intervention scope are crucial factors.
The variation in obligation depth suggests that a broader intervention scope, even with a phase-down approach, can represent a deeper commitment than a narrow full phase-out, influencing the clubs’ effectiveness in reducing emissions.
Compliance with phase-out club commitments varies, with some clubs showing significant progress while others face challenges.
NNCC members have not commissioned any new coal power plants, and PPCA members collectively reduced coal capacity by about 30% between 2017 and 2023. However, ZRF members show mixed results, with some countries reducing flaring significantly while others increased it. Compliance data for GMP, CCAC, and BOGA is not yet available due to recent data limitations.
The varying levels of compliance highlight the challenges in achieving collective progress and the importance of monitoring and data availability for assessing club effectiveness.
Phase-out clubs provide both exclusive and non-exclusive benefits to members, enhancing their appeal and effectiveness.
The CCAC and GMP offer exclusive access to expert consultations and funding, while BOGA provides funding to both members and non-members willing to align with its objectives. The PPCA and NNCC offer reputational benefits as first movers in the transition away from coal.
The combination of exclusive and non-exclusive benefits strengthens the clubs’ ability to attract and retain members, supporting their role in global climate governance.
Phase-out clubs complement the Paris Agreement by raising awareness and building momentum for phase-out measures within the UNFCCC.
The CCAC was the first to address short-lived climate pollutants, and the GMP’s rapid membership growth created momentum for methane reductions ahead of COP28. The PPCA’s work on phasing out unabated coal preceded the inclusion of coal phase-down language in the 2021 Glasgow Climate Pact.
By addressing issues not yet covered in UNFCCC negotiations, phase-out clubs play a crucial role in advancing climate mitigation measures and supporting the implementation of the Paris Agreement.