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Examining the ‘feminization of agriculture’ in a mixed-farming system in Sindhuli District, Nepal
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Journal Article (2024)
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Investigates the ‘feminization of agriculture’ within a mixed-farming system in Sindhuli District, Nepal, emphasizing gendered labor dynamics in citrus production.
Sindhuli District, Nepal, is a prominent citrus-producing region, particularly known for its Junar (Citrus sinensis Osbeck). As of 2011/2012, Sindhuli led in citrus production among 60 districts, with 9737 metric tons produced over 1476 hectares. The district’s economy is heavily reliant on agriculture, with 88.98% of households engaged in agricultural activities. Migration patterns reveal a significant gender disparity, with 27,793 males and 1086 females migrating between 2008 and 2014. The literacy rate in Golanjor, a rural municipality in Sindhuli, shows a gender gap, with 64.91% of females and 80.62% of males being literate. The agrarian transition in Sindhuli is marked by shifts in crop cultivation based on market value, with a notable move towards citrus production as its market value increased. This transition has led to changes in land use, from monocropping to inter-cropping and back to monocropping of citrus. The political economy, supported by government and organizations, has facilitated the commercialization of citrus, making it a high-value crop in the region.
The study focuses on the labor dynamics within this agrarian transition, particularly the gendered participation in agricultural labor. In Sindhuli, household labor, exchange labor, and hired labor are prevalent in four agricultural domains: cereal, citrus, livestock, and vegetables. Female participation is higher than male participation across all domains, with the highest female-to-male ratio in vegetable production. Exchange labor, a traditional practice in cereal production, shows a significant female presence. Citrus production, however, relies more on hired labor, with a higher proportion of women in wage labor. The study highlights the task-based division of labor, where men and women engage in different activities within each production domain. In citrus cultivation, men typically manage skilled tasks, while women perform routine tasks. The study underscores the socio-cultural expectations and gender roles that influence labor dynamics in Sindhuli’s agricultural sector.
Key findings
- Female participation in agricultural labor is higher than male participation across all production domains in Sindhuli District.Evidence
The study found that out of 532 household members above ten years, 266 were female and 262 were male. Female participation was higher in all production domains, with the highest female-to-male ratio in vegetable production. In cereal production, the female-to-male ratio in exchange labor was 1.6:1.
What it meansThe findings indicate a significant gender disparity in agricultural labor, with women contributing more labor across various domains. This highlights the critical role of women in sustaining agricultural productivity in Sindhuli.
- Citrus production in Sindhuli relies heavily on hired labor, with a higher proportion of women in wage labor compared to other domains.Evidence
Citrus production employs twice as many wage laborers as cereal production. The study notes that the labor demand in citrus is met from the labor market rather than traditional exchange labor practices.
What it meansThe reliance on hired labor in citrus production reflects the commercialization of this high-value crop, which has altered traditional labor practices and increased women's participation in wage labor.
- The task-based division of labor in agriculture is gendered, with men and women engaging in different activities within each production domain.Evidence
In cereal production, men typically handle land preparation tasks, while women are responsible for sowing, plantation, and post-harvest work. In citrus cultivation, men manage skilled tasks like orchard management and insecticide application, while women perform routine tasks such as weeding and fertilizer application.
What it meansThe gendered division of labor reflects socio-cultural norms and expectations, which influence the roles and responsibilities of men and women in agriculture.
- The feminization of agriculture in Sindhuli is not solely due to male outmigration but also due to men's limited involvement in certain agricultural activities.Evidence
The study found that men's involvement in vegetable subsistence production, livestock management, and post-harvest activities for cereal cultivation is limited. Women, on the other hand, are more involved in these activities.
What it meansThe findings challenge the assumption that male outmigration is the primary driver of feminization in agriculture, highlighting the need to consider other factors influencing gender dynamics in agricultural labor.
- The introduction of new horticultural crops like citrus has led to changes in labor practices, impacting traditional exchange labor systems.Evidence
The study notes that the commercialization of citrus has led to a reduction in exchange labor practices, with a shift towards hired labor. This change has affected women's labor participation, as they are more involved in exchange labor for cereal crops.
What it meansThe shift towards hired labor in citrus production reflects broader changes in agricultural practices, which have implications for gender dynamics and labor participation in Sindhuli.
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Examining the ‘feminization of agriculture’ in a mixed-farming system in Sindhuli District, Nepal
Cite this brief: Rana, Hritika. 'Examining the ‘feminization of agriculture’ in a mixed-farming system in Sindhuli District, Nepal'. Acume. https://www.acume.org/r/examining-the-feminization-of-agriculture-in-a-mixed-farming-system-in-sindhuli-district-nepal/
Brief created by: Dr Hritika Rana | Year brief made: 2025
Original research:
- Rana, H., ‘Examining the ‘feminization of agriculture’ in a mixed-farming system in Sindhuli District, Nepal’ 43(2), pp. 137–144 https://journals.ed.ac.uk/himalaya/article/view/8123/12785. – https://journals.ed.ac.uk/himalaya/article/view/8123/12785
Research brief:
Investigates the ‘feminization of agriculture’ within a mixed-farming system in Sindhuli District, Nepal, emphasizing gendered labor dynamics in citrus production.
Sindhuli District, Nepal, is a prominent citrus-producing region, particularly known for its Junar (Citrus sinensis Osbeck). As of 2011/2012, Sindhuli led in citrus production among 60 districts, with 9737 metric tons produced over 1476 hectares. The district’s economy is heavily reliant on agriculture, with 88.98% of households engaged in agricultural activities. Migration patterns reveal a significant gender disparity, with 27,793 males and 1086 females migrating between 2008 and 2014. The literacy rate in Golanjor, a rural municipality in Sindhuli, shows a gender gap, with 64.91% of females and 80.62% of males being literate. The agrarian transition in Sindhuli is marked by shifts in crop cultivation based on market value, with a notable move towards citrus production as its market value increased. This transition has led to changes in land use, from monocropping to inter-cropping and back to monocropping of citrus. The political economy, supported by government and organizations, has facilitated the commercialization of citrus, making it a high-value crop in the region.
The study focuses on the labor dynamics within this agrarian transition, particularly the gendered participation in agricultural labor. In Sindhuli, household labor, exchange labor, and hired labor are prevalent in four agricultural domains: cereal, citrus, livestock, and vegetables. Female participation is higher than male participation across all domains, with the highest female-to-male ratio in vegetable production. Exchange labor, a traditional practice in cereal production, shows a significant female presence. Citrus production, however, relies more on hired labor, with a higher proportion of women in wage labor. The study highlights the task-based division of labor, where men and women engage in different activities within each production domain. In citrus cultivation, men typically manage skilled tasks, while women perform routine tasks. The study underscores the socio-cultural expectations and gender roles that influence labor dynamics in Sindhuli’s agricultural sector.
Findings:
Female participation in agricultural labor is higher than male participation across all production domains in Sindhuli District.
The study found that out of 532 household members above ten years, 266 were female and 262 were male. Female participation was higher in all production domains, with the highest female-to-male ratio in vegetable production. In cereal production, the female-to-male ratio in exchange labor was 1.6:1.
The findings indicate a significant gender disparity in agricultural labor, with women contributing more labor across various domains. This highlights the critical role of women in sustaining agricultural productivity in Sindhuli.
Citrus production in Sindhuli relies heavily on hired labor, with a higher proportion of women in wage labor compared to other domains.
Citrus production employs twice as many wage laborers as cereal production. The study notes that the labor demand in citrus is met from the labor market rather than traditional exchange labor practices.
The reliance on hired labor in citrus production reflects the commercialization of this high-value crop, which has altered traditional labor practices and increased women’s participation in wage labor.
The task-based division of labor in agriculture is gendered, with men and women engaging in different activities within each production domain.
In cereal production, men typically handle land preparation tasks, while women are responsible for sowing, plantation, and post-harvest work. In citrus cultivation, men manage skilled tasks like orchard management and insecticide application, while women perform routine tasks such as weeding and fertilizer application.
The gendered division of labor reflects socio-cultural norms and expectations, which influence the roles and responsibilities of men and women in agriculture.
The feminization of agriculture in Sindhuli is not solely due to male outmigration but also due to men’s limited involvement in certain agricultural activities.
The study found that men’s involvement in vegetable subsistence production, livestock management, and post-harvest activities for cereal cultivation is limited. Women, on the other hand, are more involved in these activities.
The findings challenge the assumption that male outmigration is the primary driver of feminization in agriculture, highlighting the need to consider other factors influencing gender dynamics in agricultural labor.
The introduction of new horticultural crops like citrus has led to changes in labor practices, impacting traditional exchange labor systems.
The study notes that the commercialization of citrus has led to a reduction in exchange labor practices, with a shift towards hired labor. This change has affected women’s labor participation, as they are more involved in exchange labor for cereal crops.
The shift towards hired labor in citrus production reflects broader changes in agricultural practices, which have implications for gender dynamics and labor participation in Sindhuli.